How Was Successful Nazi Policy In The Years 1933 - 1945 Essay

How Was Successful Nazi Policy In The Years 1933 - 1945 - Essay Example Two major groups bind the youth of the nation during the reign of Nazis. These groups comprise the Hitler youth group and league of the German maidens. In the youth group under the reign of Hitler led Nazi Germany, boys at the age of 10 were influenced to join the Jungvolk. At the age of 14, it is expected that the boys will join the Hitler youth committee. The Hitler led Nazi mainly focused towards enhancing the physical fitness along with proper military training for the youth right from the very beginning of the Nazi era. In addition, the membership of the youth in the Nazi movement made compulsory for the boys. On the other hand, ‘League of the German Maidens’ predominately included the German girls. Nazi led German was also focused towards providing training to the teenagers so that they could join the Nazi defense force. Hitler also instructed schools that the girls should be taught about Nationalist as well as racist beliefs so that they could embed well into the Nazi culture. In this particular regard, Hitler started the youth movement where the young girls of age 10-14 needed to learn the ideologies of Nazi along with other activities such as camping and athletics among others so that they could be able to get physical fitness and enhance the prospects of future Nazi soldier. The Hitler led Nazi Germany considered the youth of the country to be among the most vital assets. Contextually, they attempted to control girls and embed them into the Nazi culture right from the beginner stage.

Captivity Narrative Essay Example for Free

Captivity Narrative Essay Captivity narratives were commonly popular in the 1700’s by both European and American populations. Captivity narratives in America portrayed either whites enslaved by savages or the African enslaved by the white slave owner. Captivity narratives were written to show the reader of one’s experiences while being in captivity. Two authors who wrote a couple of these narratives are Mary Rowlandson and Olaudah Equiano. Mary Rowlandson’s narrative is entitled, â€Å"A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson. The title of Olaudah Equiano’s narrative is â€Å"The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavas Vassa, the African, Written by Himself. † Captivity narratives test a person’s faith and his or her ability to survive in a specific given situation. Both authors must learn to survive in a different culture. Both desire their freedom, but fear the dangers of escape. Rowlandson relies on her religious strength to help her through her suffering, while Equiano relies on his moral and eventually religious strength to help him through his suffering. Examining these two narratives will show similarities and differences in their purpose but will ultimately show the reason for the narrative which was to sway a person’s way of thinking. Both Equiano and Rowlandson were living an ordinary life until they were torn away. Equiano was living a carefree life, enjoying his time growing up in his village along with his family. That day came to an end when he and his sister were captured and sold into slavery. Equiano states, â€Å"One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my dear sister were left to mind the house, two men and a women got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both, and without giving us time to cry out, or make resistance, they stopped our mouths, and ran off with us in the nearest wood† (690). Rowlandson’s narrative begins with Native Americans attacking her village as they come upon her house and set fire to it. As Rowlandson attempts to leave her home, she is captured. Rowlandson states, â€Å"The Indians laid hold of us, pulling me one way, and the children another, and said, ‘Come go along with us’: I told them they would kill me: they answered, if I were willing to go along with them, they would not hurt me† (258). The similarity of both narratives is that both were enjoying their lives until they abruptly changed. The difference is that Equiano was a child, not knowing much about the world while Rowlandson was an adult and knew the dangers of being a colonist. Both authors once captive had to adapt to their surroundings. Equiano experienced many different cultures before being bought in Virginia as a slave. Equiano taught himself how to expand his knowledge after being taught by Miss Guerin and under the tutelage of a schoolmaster the basics of reading and writing. Equiano states, â€Å"Nor did I leave my kind patronesses, the Miss Guerins, without uneasiness and regret. They often used to teach me to read, and took great pains to instruct me in the principles of religion and the knowledge of God† (703). Equiano’s thirst for knowledge growing up would help lead him to his freedom. Similarly, Rowlandson learned the culture of the natives to help her survive hunger and starvation. â€Å"There came an Indian to them at that time with a basket of horse liver. I asked him to give me a piece. ‘What,’ says he, ‘can you eat horse liver? ’ I told him, I would try†¦so that I was fain to take the rest and eat it as it was, with the blood about my mouth, and yet a savory bit it was to me† (266). While both learned their new cultures, Equiano’s purpose was to gain knowledge to eventually free him, and Rowlandson’s purpose was for survival. Both Equiano and Rowlandson desired their freedom, but also feared the dangers of escape. Equiano was in a civilized area, but the realization of being alone in an attempt to get back home was diminishing. Equiano expresses, â€Å"I had before entertained hopes of getting home, and had determined when it should be dark to make the attempt; but I was now convinced it was fruitless, and began to consider that, if possible I could escape all other animals, I could not those of human kind† (692). Rowlandson was in the wilderness and she had no idea how close she was to the nearest colony. As Rowlandson is speaking with another English captive about escaping, she states, â€Å"I wished her not to run away by any means, for we were near thirty miles from any English town† (263). Rowlandson not only feared being caught after escape, but she also feared of being lost in the wilderness with the wild animals. Rowlandson wrote, â€Å"Heart-aching thoughts here I had about my poor children, who were scattered up and down among the wild beasts of the forest† (264). Both authors adapted to surroundings to help them survive their captivity. Both authors have to rely on religious and moral strength to help them endure their captivity. Rowlandson believes in Christianity, and that helped her to survive her captivity. She believes everything happens for a reason and that God was testing her faith. Rowlandson in her reflection of Psalms quotes, â€Å"Oh that my people had hearkened to me, and Israel had walked in my ways, I should soon have subdued their enemies, and turned my hand against their adversaries† (265). On the other hand, Equiano has no knowledge of Christianity in his early childhood and yet it wasn’t till his adulthood that he understood white Christianity. Equiano knew being part of the white Christianity would help him earn his freedom. Equiano had to rely on his moral strength, in the beginning, to be free and his religious strength to withstand his captivity. Equiano wrote, â€Å"I regard myself as a particular favorite of Heaven, and acknowledge the mercies of Providence in every occurrence of my life† (688). Both authors justify their captivity with the grace of God and that it was a testament of their faith. Captivity narratives were popular during the 1700s with many readers. Although Equiano and Rowlandson write their narrative with captivity as the main subject, both endured entirely different situations. Rowlandson thought she was captured by the savages, but she realizes she was never treated unjustly. Equiano, on the other hand, was supposedly captured and sold into slavery by the civilized population, but he was treated inhumanely. Both authors hoped to open the eyes of others to see the injustices of being a captive.

Nemean Stadium :: essays papers

Nemean Stadium Based on Legend, approximately around 776 BCE, Koroibos crossed the finish line at the altar of Zeus and was crowned the first winner in Olympic history. Thus was the beginning of the ancient phenomenon of the Olympic Games. A time where all war would come to a pause as men would test their valor against fellow man in peaceful physical competition. This competition was partaken in stadiums at select locations. These men were considered elite athletes and representative of many men. This made the games important in more ways than competition. They were also political, social and a major source of pride within ancient Greece. But these Olympic games only came around every four years, so others followed. Along with the Olympic games three others joined forming the Panhellenic athletic festivals. They were the Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. The sites for these games grew in extravagance as well as popularity over time and in turn the stadiums the games were to be held in also grew in extravagance. The stadium at Nemea was particularly one of extravagance and prestige. The University of California at Berkley has done a great deal for the Nemean site in the past 25 years. They have uncovered a stadium dated circa 330 BCE along with a tunnel, which is said to have been an athlete entrance to the stadium. Extensive study of the Nemean stadium and tunnel has been done and the site is well documented. The impacts of such a great archaeological find is wonderful and has inspired many to even reenact the infamous Nemean Games. Through basic review of fact and study the following will briefly detail the findings of the stadium at Nemea and its tunnel. The site at Nemea had many visitors, known to have started as early as 1766, excavating parts mostly in search of treasures from the Sanctuary of Zeus. The earliest mention of the stadium was from Colonel William Leake, approximately during the 18th century, from where he located the stadium. Unfortunately no real excavation was done until 1973 when the University of Berkley began a large scale dig under the advisory of the American School of Classical Studies, Athens and the guidance of Stephen G Miller. The investigation began an extensive yearly excavation from 1974- 1983 and since then many smaller projects have steadily occurred. Nemean Stadium :: essays papers Nemean Stadium Based on Legend, approximately around 776 BCE, Koroibos crossed the finish line at the altar of Zeus and was crowned the first winner in Olympic history. Thus was the beginning of the ancient phenomenon of the Olympic Games. A time where all war would come to a pause as men would test their valor against fellow man in peaceful physical competition. This competition was partaken in stadiums at select locations. These men were considered elite athletes and representative of many men. This made the games important in more ways than competition. They were also political, social and a major source of pride within ancient Greece. But these Olympic games only came around every four years, so others followed. Along with the Olympic games three others joined forming the Panhellenic athletic festivals. They were the Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. The sites for these games grew in extravagance as well as popularity over time and in turn the stadiums the games were to be held in also grew in extravagance. The stadium at Nemea was particularly one of extravagance and prestige. The University of California at Berkley has done a great deal for the Nemean site in the past 25 years. They have uncovered a stadium dated circa 330 BCE along with a tunnel, which is said to have been an athlete entrance to the stadium. Extensive study of the Nemean stadium and tunnel has been done and the site is well documented. The impacts of such a great archaeological find is wonderful and has inspired many to even reenact the infamous Nemean Games. Through basic review of fact and study the following will briefly detail the findings of the stadium at Nemea and its tunnel. The site at Nemea had many visitors, known to have started as early as 1766, excavating parts mostly in search of treasures from the Sanctuary of Zeus. The earliest mention of the stadium was from Colonel William Leake, approximately during the 18th century, from where he located the stadium. Unfortunately no real excavation was done until 1973 when the University of Berkley began a large scale dig under the advisory of the American School of Classical Studies, Athens and the guidance of Stephen G Miller. The investigation began an extensive yearly excavation from 1974- 1983 and since then many smaller projects have steadily occurred.

The Mathematics of Map Coloring :: Colors Science Essays

The Mathematics of Map Coloring The four-color conjecture has been one of several unsolved mathematical problems. From 1852 to this day, practically every mathematician has studied the problem long and hard, but to no avail. The conjecture looks as though it has been solved by Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel, both of the University of Illinois. They have used computer technology to prove the conjecture. The calculation itself goes on for about 1200 hours. The staggering length of the computation of the proof is what creates some controversy in the mathematical world. The Appel-Haken Theorem is based on numerous assumptions, â€Å"that there is an overwhelmingly great probability that their method of proof must succeed.† [3] It assumes that the theory itself is correct, but the theory itself is also an assumption. You can see why this issue has been wreaking havoc for many years. It all started back in 1852 when Francis Guthrie was coloring a map of England. He wanted to know the least amount of colors, or chromatic number, it would take to color the map so no two adjacent regions are of the same color. He found the chromatic number to be four. He then studied arbitrary maps and wondered if all maps could be colored with four colors. Francis’ curiosity would be in the minds of all mathematicians to come. He then passed this question on to his brother, Frederick. He then submitted this to his professor Augustus deMorgan as a mathematical conjecture. deMorgan was fascinated by the Four-Color problem and wrote in a letter to his colleague Sir William Rowan Hamilton the next day after seeing the conjecture. Hamilton was less enlightened by it, and never worked on it. It was through deMorgan that the Four-Color problem was made known, thus deMorgan has incorrectly been dubbed the originator of the problem. Eventually the hype surrounding the conjecture died down in the early 1860’s. This down time, during which interest in the problem was minimal, only lasted about twenty years. A lawyer by the name of Alfred Bray Kempe proposed a solution in The American Journal of

1984 Oppression Essay

In the dystopian novel 1984, George Orwell portrays a society where betrayal is not only acceptable, but it is actively encouraged through the use of psychological manipulation, which demonstrates the weakness of the individual to resist oppression. The party has built the society in such a way that when Parson is turned in by his daughter to the Thought Police he reacts with â€Å"sort of a doleful pride† (233). Parson is an example of the unthinking masses of the society; he has been oppressed for so long his ability for individual thought has been greatly diminished. He doesn’t even question if he truly committed treason against Big Brother, he does not take into consideration that his seven year old daughter may be lying. Parsons doesn’t show any anger toward his daughter that betrayed him, his response is the exact opposite he is proud that his daughter is doing what is best for the party. The party’s oppression of the individual begins at birth, through methodical thought conditioning. The party transforms the children of the society into model citizens that are willing to betray their own flesh and blood. See more: Foot Binding In China essay Through the party’s use of psychological manipulation the framework of the society urges its citizens to pursue the enemies of Big Brother. This further cements the Party’s power. The party dehumanizes them so that their inhibitions are only showing loyalty to the party. Through the domination of thought the party ensures that its citizens are completely loyal to Big Brother. The telescreen is a tool for the party; the citizens of Oceania live in constant fear of being monitored by the screens that they end up betraying their thoughts through their body language. â€Å"The smallest thing could give you away. A nervous tic, an unconscious look, a habit of muttering to yourself-anything that carried with the suggestion of abnormality†(79). Oceania’s citizens don’t know when they are being watched, the byproduct of this is the citizens policing themselves, giving the Thought Police the ability to completely control them. The fear produced by the telescreens lead the people expose themselves to the eyes of the party, which ultimately leads them to betray themselves .The party overwhelms the minds capacity by a constant stream of propaganda coming out of the telescreen at all hours of the day allowing the party to completely dominate the minds of the people, taking away the potential of individual thought. Betrayal in the society George Orwell created in 1984 was expected. Through the domination of the individual thought, and their inability to resist that oppression, betrayal of one’s comrades was only natural. Individual thought was so greatly overshadowed by the party’s constant stream of propaganda in the novel that there was no place for it in the minds of the citizens. The psychological manipulation that the party inflicted on its citizens everyday made it impossible for the individual to resist oppression.

MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net The WritePass Journal

MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net Introduction MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net IntroductionNetwork ServerOperating Systems Game Playing SoftwareReferencingRelated Introduction MMOGs are an abbreviation for Massively Multiplayer Online Game. This is a video game which is capable of supporting hundreds and thousands of players interacting with this running video. Gaming platforms have become diverse and a universal game environment is supported. MMOGs require specific hardware and software to play and be a part of these online games. Firstly a Personal Computer (PC), keyboard, mouse, screen, graphics card, sound card, speakers, head sets, a suitable operating system, sufficient RAM, a hard disk needs to be present. If required, joysticks can also be used to play these games for the best gaming experience.   The operating system (OS) is a key requirement needed in all PCs to play a MMOG. The hardware connects to the BIOS which is connected to the OS connecting the low level machine code to the application software which is high level language such as JAVA and COBOL. Consequently connection to the graphics driver, gaming code then straight to the virtual world it is connected to. The OSI model is responsible for effective communication of data through each layer on the PC and the servers machine.   Therefore when a user is playing a game the data will flow from the gateway server to the log in or zone server to the world server into the database which is where the data for MMOG is stored. MMOGs can be played by it connection to a game server. A game server is a remotely or locally run server used by game clients to play MMOGs or video games. Most video games played over the Internet operate via a connection to a game server usually via different networks connected through cables, tracks and busses from the motherboard to the gaming server. A user will connect to a MMOG using an internet connection where the user’s actions will be sent to and retrieved by a server which then calculated a new game state and send this back through the linked connection   to the player, with the series of actions repeating. Furthermore, as multi-platform game technology continues to grow, this allows one game to be played in a different platform concurrently, as advances in the development of distributed game server including the less popular listen server technology is necessary to support large numbers of parallel game including their users safely when playing online. MMOGs, in which large numbers of users play a game in the same virtual gaming world, is a big field of heavy server loads due to game event handling, this leads to problems of latency server, client packet loss. This graph shows the amount of MMOGs have been subscribed to since 1997. It shows that more and more people are becoming attracted to playing MMOGS up until 2008 as the graph does not go any further. The most popular game that is shown is World of Warcraft with over ten million subscribers to the game. Personal Computer or Console As online gaming enters the mainstream, system requirements of the personal computer (PC) are moving tremendously in performance. The key issue is that online gamine needs to meet the growing necessities of gamers and online gaming membership. In order to facilitate this, games must have a powerful processor to maximise the game playing experience. The processors role is vital to any computer as it manages the entire system for example where to start and stop executing commands inputted by the user. The processor will fetch data needed by the instruction commanded by the user and returning this processed instruction after execution, then again fetching instructions inputted for example the user loads a game. Consequently after the control unit has fetched, executed and decoded an instruction the program counter holds the address of the next instruction within the memory for example the user has clicked on start game after loading the game. The instruction pointer keeps track of where in the program the instruction has reached. in a system starting from input from a joystick for example into the memory where it is processed and stored if needed with the necessary output given in the form of for example moving 3d images on the screen. The processor manages multiple roles as it carries out many instructions and thus becomes complex for running the operating system (OS) (1), the web browser or the downloaded Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOG).Therefore the better the processor the faster the quality/ performance when playing a MMOG without any pauses and halts. The latest Intel i7 2.8 GHz processor containing 8 cores for 8 way multi-tasking and an L3 Cache which delivers top class performance during game playing. Random access memory (RAM) is used to temporarily store the applications used to play the MMOGS allows reading and writing to be carried out. RAM is volatile memory as when there is no power sourced to the RAM, data cannot be retained(1). The highest amount of RAM available is 8GB DDR3, continually expanding. Hence the more RAM the more available space the PC has to store the current game being played. The hard disk, secondary memory can be used to store a game or the application needed to play the game. This uses sequential access which contains rotating disks (3). It works by looking up data needed to be processed from the game players input processing this data from the calculations made in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and saves it in the cache which is a high temporary storage place that makes and answers requests. The hard disks capacity can now increase up to 1terabtye within newer PC’s. The GPU forms the core of the graphics card that usually sits inside a slot on the motherboard(10) but sometimes it is pre integrated into the motherboard. It roles and responsibilities for processing images, creating the picture displayed by the monitor for example the 3d moving images in MMOGs. The GPU is a specialised processor that runs calculations of advanced image processing especially 3D Graphics(2). The GPU contains a separate processing unit as it stores images before displaying them. The graphics card is able to allocate slots when viewing 3D scenes for instance in MMOGs similar to the CPU where it can process data for example dual core processors which can carry out two instructions at the same time. The GPU enables a third processor to process its own data speeding up operations such as playing games which are wholly based on images, 3d images and moving images within the computer for example speeding up the sequence of the images played from the game(2). The GPU talks to the frame buffer to designate parts of memory used to store images before viewing it. RAM DAC, random access memory digital to analogue coveter converts the digital images stored in the frame buffer into analogue, which is then sent to the screen to be displayed. The GPU also contains BIOS similar to the CPU, which loads when the computer starts(2). The interface connects the graphics card to the motherboard requiring high broadband necessary for displaying video clips and 3d images within games(2). The basic sound card is printed on the circuit board, which uses analogue to digital AC DC converter and a PIC interface card to connect to the motherboard and input output connectors for microphone and speakers(6). The sound card enables sounds to be heard from the speakers or gaming headset for audible effects when playing MMOG’s creating different moods and scenes. The screen often referred to as a monitor, where by the display is the most common form of used output, with feedback in the form of text and graphical images used to view the game when it is being played(5). Most desktop screens use liquid crystal display (LCD) or cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. For an ultra-sharp Display when playing games the TFT active matrix 24in – Widescreen, with a Max Resolution of 1920 x 1200, Colour Support of 16.7 million colours. Other output devices include speakers and a gaming 2.4GHz head set. The function of a keyboard as an input device where people can type, inputting data, use shortcuts to control many programmes, access menus also games(7). The keyboard also includes control keys providing cursor and screen control which is needed to play many MMOGs for example using the left, right, up and down arrows(7). There are many types of mice an input device; the main ones include a mechanical scroll mouse, optical mouse and a track ball mouse(8). A laser point mouse which uses light-emitting diodes (LED) or laser as a way of tracking movements is the most common enabling MMOGs to be played easier due to its swift broad movements making game playing easier as there is no wire attached.  Ã‚   Other mice include of foot mouse for disabled people, joystick mouse for gamers and a touch pad mouse. Lastly a common input device, the joystick which helps gamers to truly personalise their gaming and flight stimulation experiences. This includes a dual throttle lever for control of a multi-engine aircraft, twisted axes, adjustable hat switches, scroll buttons and trigger buttons to enable MMOGs to be played in a variety of ways making them more interesting. Many of these input and output devices can have an interface with PCs by serial ports and USB. Network Server A game server is a remotely run or a locally run server which can be used by gamers to play MMOGs. Most games that are played over the internet function by having a connection to a game server. Thus online game ply is impacted bythe network characteristics of players that are at one time connected to the game server. Many online games allow a choice from a wide range of servers available. This is the case for many MMOGs as users can run their own servers allowing players to connect from anywhere on the internet. This is known as a listen server, a dedicated server also exists. These are the two types of servers used to play MMOGs. Listen servers are peer to peer servers which run on the same PC as the gamer client. When the gamer disconnects this server is shut down because the server and the host client are run symmetrically. This means that the game must be transferred to another player or end completely which is not preferred on a big server as the host needs to either stay online wasting slots in the server and computer power possibly slowing the game or ending the game for all other players. Due to the small processing size listen servers will also not be able to handle the client’s game, server processing and the hack detection as it is difficult to function correctly without the required processing power. Although they are easy to set up by simply creating a new game then allowing players to join. Also the user only requires one PC in contrast to a dedicated server that either allows client to host the server or play a game. The client cannot physically do both unless there is a second PC/ machin e. Dedicated servers are client to peer which run independently of the clients. They are set up on a separate PC which is often hosted in a data centre. This means that they will have a high processor for high amounts of processing and high bandwidth as it does not need to share a CPU with the players game. In general dedicated servers are the preferred method of hosting game servers for most PC based MMOGs. It is beneficial to those who demand more control, the freedom to install multiple games onto the server. Due to its general processing ability it can then support a huge number of players at the same time. Network Connection What level of network quality service should be provided to maintain a satisfactory gaming experience? The network has a huge impact on MMOGs. Having a reliable network connection means that players are able to log onto a network online which is available and use the services provided such as playing games buying game subscriptions etc. Without a network connection MMOGs cannot be played. Kuan et al have found that network delay and network loss significantly affect a players willingness to continue playing a game. MMOGs depend upon the network connection for their operation on the speed and reliability of this network connection. Firstly bandwidth which is the average rate of successful data transfer through a communications path which is usually measured in kilobits and megabits per second. The more bandwidth available more data can be transferred through the Ethernet cable for playing MMOGs. In contrast latency is delay, the amount of time it takes a packet to travel from its source to its destination. A low latency network connection will experience small delays whereas playing a MMOG on a high latency network connection will generally be prone to more delays which can be expressed in mili seconds. One way which latency can be measured is small packets of miniature data (32 bytes) is sent to the host and the round time trip (RTT), the time it takes for the packet to leave the sourced address travels to its destination and sent back is then measured. When playing MMOGs the more bandwidth ava ilable more data will be transferred during a second speeding up game play. Also the less the latency the less delay it will take for each pat of the game to be displayed without pauses and stops. Thus the combination of latency and bandwidth gives the user a perception of how quickly the game can be played and necessary data transformed. Server packet loss rate is also another factor that affects speed and reliability of a network connection in MMOGs. This concerns the loss of ratio packets sent from the game server to the player which credits for added latency before state updates or game messages are presented on the screen to the players. Client packet loss rate concerns the loss ratio of packets sent to the game server by players which credits for added latency before a players commands can be handled by the game server as loss detection and recovery cost precious time. This general diagram shows the process when playing MMOGs in real time. The client is playing a game and their actions are received by the server and it then calculates the game state, which is then sent, then the server again does new actions which is received by the server and it then calculates the new game state, thus sending this new game state back to the pc and this cycle continues until the user has finished playing the game. In more detail MMOGs often use distributed servers which are required to support a large number of concurrent games. The data is sent from the user to the gateway server which passes on the information to the zone or login server which then goes to the world sever connecting to the database of the game that is being played, the new data is then sent back through these severs back to the user’s PC. This data is sent using the CPU or the micro-processor which connected to all the elements of the computers components for example the games input and output elements via cables and he bus which is a sub system used for the transfer of data between the different computer components and the networks which enable the PC to connect to the gaming server(1). This is called Serial Advanced Technology Attachment(5). The busses are highly flexible as they can become external busses, in connecting different machines together such as connecting to the game server. The communication between the server and the game client can be divided into three main sections. This figure provides an outline of the architecture which illustrates the physical and logical layout of the game application and the communications legitimized between the server and the game clients. The data access layer within extracts the database from the application allows the systems to retrieve data representing objects in the database. The application layer system features implemental of users, online games, game modes, game states etc. Lastly the presentation layer which consists of HTML and java scrip, basic page templates and display, dynamic views of the system are presented to the user. Operating Systems Game Playing Software An operating system (OS) can be said to be a system software which is responsible for direct control and managing of input, output hardware and basic system operations. In addition it is a foundation upon which the application software such as web browsers and gaming software can be run. A operating system that can be used to play games on is Windows 7 a 64 bit operating system. The role of the OS is to manage the hardware and software resources and interact with the data and its presentation. OS process management ensures that for example if the game is being played it receives sufficient process time for the expert functioning also states that the processor is used to its optimum capacity. OS storage management allocates the relevant or necessary memory space for the game application and its connected hardware in the one of the different available memories for effective and optimum processing of information. OS device management manages input output devices, programs with device drivers conjoined with the OS controls the flow of information with allocation of system resources to ensure correct input and output from for example the joystick. Lastly the OS user interface provides a consistent way of communication between the user and the game being played for example if one was playing the game in real time efficient communication would be needed to be prese nt. A general game server needs a kernel 2.0.24 or better and a good OS for example Linux. Linux is a good in distributed networking game servers. This is because it gives incredible performance to host the games compared to bulky terminals. Also it is thus possible to customise it to the hardware and load requirements of the game which is being hosted as it uses a user friendly kernel configuration file as well as the full source availability for this kernel. The Linux OS system resources receive sufficient processing time and the processor being used to its optimum capacity when hosting a game. It can also manage input and output well including managing the data to host the game extremely well. The game playing software can both be bought and downloaded online, or from a shop where by the games software will be present on a cd. This software is then installed on a PC ready for the gamer to play. It interacts with the data from the internet as it established a connection with the server and the OS along with the internet can transmit and receive data which is then converted from binary data into a high level language that the PC understands such as java, COBOL. This language is then then transferred into graphical moving images which the user can interpret and understand and continue to play the game for example the user will know if he has been shot or he has killed a person. The game servers use specialised software of the game which the server is dedicated to although it will contain different data as in order to run a game on a game server it has to be able to host games etc. which normal game playing software cannot do. The game servers game software interacts with data similarly via the internet by establishing a connection with a sever which then can connect to a player and thus the game can be successfully played. The game server is a distinct process, usually upon a different machine, which retains information on whichever virtual world it supports at that particular time. It converses with the game clients used by the players to retain global information about joint locations, player interaction. For example, each player will have different window into their joint virtual location depending on where they are in the game. The scenes accessible to the players must be consistent so if one player changes the state of an object for example, that objec t must exist for all the other players and be in the same state. Although Presentation does not need to be considered as the gamers do not see what goes on inside a gaming server although those who maintain gaming servers need the data to be available in a readable form so that with their technical knowledge they can successfully manage the game server. The games engine works by the operating system loading the game server onto its system including the graphic drivers. The server connects to the network code and other instances of the game. This then connects to the gaming code for example a high level language then connecting to the virtual worlds where many players can play the MMOG. Conclusion Online games have continued to increase in popularity, with the MMOGs being played over a type of computer network connected to the internet starting with the basic hardware, this needs to be up to date with the latest hardware installed in the pc for example keyboards, joysticks need to be compatible with the game that is being played. For the best gaming experience a NVIDIA graphics card which has its own separate processor, a good quality sound card with speakers are needed. This increase in popularity of online gaming has resulted to the huge growth of the internet, different network connections are now available, these include peer to peer and client server architectures which enables anyone with a connection to the network, internet is able to play a MMOG and interact even in real time with other players due to the high processing ability on servers networks are now able to support many millions of players. Although bandwidth and better network connections are increasing and have become present in the busses and cables this does not mean that the network connection is completely reliable. Due to the millions of clients connection to a game or several games at different times this can still lead to problems of latency where packets take longer to reach their destination so this could bring about small pauses in the MMOG. Also some locations such as remote locations may receive less bandwidth which then in turn affects the game as the game play will decrease especially if it is in real time as this data travels from the user, to the log in server, zone server, and world server to the databases. MMOGs require the OSI mode to function in which the important parts, the data access layer executes the database from the MMOG application. Following the application layer features implementations of clients, game modes etc. as lastly the presentation presents the displays and dynamic views of the game to clients. Therefore as technology grows the scope for playing MMOGs increases as better facilities are provided and are constantly developing to do so. Referencing (1)   Douglas E Comer, 2005, â€Å"Essentials of Computer Architecture, Pearson Education International.   (2)  Ã‚   Anonymous, â€Å"Graphics card- video card†, intelligenceunited.com/?p=2438   [Accessed: 22/11/2010] (3)  Ã‚   Pete Jinks, â€Å"Magnetic disk storage†, cs.man.ac.uk/~pjj/cs1011/filestore/node4.html [Accessed: 30/01/2011] (4)  Ã‚   Anonymous, â€Å"Expansion card†, computerhope.com/jargon/e/expacard.htm  Ã‚   [Accessed: 22/11/2010] (5)  Ã‚   Jeff Tyson,  Tracy V. Wilson, â€Å"How computer keyboard work†, http://computer.howstuffworks.com/keyboard.htm   [Accessed: 20/12/2010] (6)  Ã‚   Anonymous, â€Å"Kinds of sound cards†, shaktitechnology.com/winshakti/demo/shakti_demo/sound_card_types.htm   [Accessed: 19/11/2010] (7)  Ã‚   Jeff Tyson,  Tracy V. Wilson, â€Å"How computer keyboard work†, http://computer.howstuffworks.com/keyboard.htm   [Accessed: 20/12/2010] (8)  Ã‚   Shumin Zhai, â€Å"The Computer Mouse and Related Input Devices†, almaden.ibm.com/u/zhai/papers/MouseInHCIEncyclopedia.pdf   [Accessed: 20/12/2010] (9)  Ã‚   Charles M. Kozierok, â€Å"Read-Only Memory (ROM)† pcguide.com/ref/ram/typesROM-c.html  Ã‚   [Accessed: 19/11/2010] (10)   Anonymous, â€Å"Expansion card†, computerhope.com/jargon/e/expacard.htm  Ã‚   [Accessed: 22/11/2010] (11)   Asensio, E., Orduà ±a, J.M. Morillo, P., 2008. Analyzing the Network Traffic Requirements of Multiplayer Online Games. 2008 The Second International Conference on Advanced Engineering Computing and Applications in Sciences, pp.229-234. www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=4641023   [Accessed: 30/03/2011] (12) Claypool, M., 2008. Network characteristics for server selection in online games. Proceedings of SPIE, pp.681808-681808-12. www.link.aip.org/link/PSISDG/v6818/i1/p681808/s1Agg=doi [Accessed: 30/03/2011] (13) Fritsch, T., 2005. The Effect of Latency and Network Limitations on MMORPGs ( A Field Study of Everquest2 ). Computer, pp.1-9. (14)   Glinka, F. et al., High-Level Development of Multiserver Online Games. International Journal of Computer Games Technology, 2008, pp.1-17. www.hindawi.com/journals/ijcgt/2008/327387.html   [Accessed: 30/03/2011 ] (15)   Huang, P., 2009. Effect of Network Quality on Player Departure Behavior in Online Games. IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, 20(5), pp.593-606. www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=4591393   [Accessed: 30/03/2011] (16) Lim, J. et al., 2006. A Dynamic Load Balancing for Massive Multiplayer Online Game Server. Ifip International Federation For Information Processing, pp.239 249. (17)   Putzke, J. 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The Negatives of Cloning essays

The Negatives of Cloning essays Human life is a creation, not a commodity, and should not be used as research material for reckless experiments, quoted George Bush. Clearly, the topic of cloning presents much controversy in the United States. Many believe immediate action should be taken to create nationwide cloning bans and ensure safety from the potential threats this procedure presents. The negatives of cloning include low success rates, numerous ethical issues, and regulation problems. The process of cloning carries many dangers throughout society including identity theft, control issues, and attempts to create a superior race. Most would agree that Hitlers vision of Germany, the perfect race, was unethical and immoral. Yet, if cloning was permitted it would be unlocking the door to this very same concept. Also, how can one possibly control who has the right to clone a human being. Would cloning be restricted to the patients family, or would the government be able to intervene? Another issue includes the possibility of identity theft. One could create a clone with the sole intent of using it as an assassin. The clone would have the exact DNA of its original parent; therefore, the parent could be falsely committed of the crime. Still, difficulties in cloning the organism itself might create several problems. Previous experiments and research in cloning have clearly shown low success rates. Dolly, the first successful cloned mammal, is considered the most infamous cloning achievement. The female sheep was born July 5, 1996 in Edinburgh, Scotland. While Dolly appears as a scientific marvel and displays cloning success, one usually does not see that she was the only survivor of 227 original eggs. As stated by BBC news, For every living clone, there are usually hundreds of failures. A staggering 97% of cloning attempts don't work. Furthermore, if one were to examine the animals which were cloned, they would notice the major ...

Free Essays on Latin American Independence

Throughout history, there were many countries exploited by means of invasion. For example, Napoleons’ invasions, the Nazi rule over the Jewish race, and so on. Colonies that are no exception to this are the Latin America colonies. During the Age of colonization (1492- 1600), Europeans imposed many things on the Latin American territory that have had a long and devastating effect on the indigenous people. Europeans invaded and controlled much of South America and the Caribbean islands for means of trading, acquiring goods, and expanding their Christian religion through forced conversions. Resulting in an imposed foreign culture upon the already established civilizations that existed before their arrival. The indigenous people of South America, which included the Aztec, Olmec, Maya, and the Inca of South America, had developed complex civilizations which made use of calendars, writing, mathematics, astronomy, the arts, and advanced architecture. They had their own religious beli efs complete with their own Gods and rituals. Unfortunately for them, the Europeans cared little about the culture they would be obliterating, and cared more about their own ulterior motives. After many years of exploitation of these people, they finally decide to rebel. From the years 1807-1824, political and military movements ended colonial rule by Spain and Portugal over Mexico, Central America, and South America and gave birth to the modern independent nations of Latin America. There were many contributing factors that ultimately led to the uprising of Latin American colonies, but the ultimate reason why Latin America decided to attain independence was because they were tried of being oppressed by Europe and the Spanish Crown. In the following paragraphs, I will explain the causes of the movements of independence and prove that this was the uprising of an oppressed nation. One of the many causes of Latin American independence was of the resentment of low... Free Essays on Latin American Independence Free Essays on Latin American Independence Throughout history, there were many countries exploited by means of invasion. For example, Napoleons’ invasions, the Nazi rule over the Jewish race, and so on. Colonies that are no exception to this are the Latin America colonies. During the Age of colonization (1492- 1600), Europeans imposed many things on the Latin American territory that have had a long and devastating effect on the indigenous people. Europeans invaded and controlled much of South America and the Caribbean islands for means of trading, acquiring goods, and expanding their Christian religion through forced conversions. Resulting in an imposed foreign culture upon the already established civilizations that existed before their arrival. The indigenous people of South America, which included the Aztec, Olmec, Maya, and the Inca of South America, had developed complex civilizations which made use of calendars, writing, mathematics, astronomy, the arts, and advanced architecture. They had their own religious beli efs complete with their own Gods and rituals. Unfortunately for them, the Europeans cared little about the culture they would be obliterating, and cared more about their own ulterior motives. After many years of exploitation of these people, they finally decide to rebel. From the years 1807-1824, political and military movements ended colonial rule by Spain and Portugal over Mexico, Central America, and South America and gave birth to the modern independent nations of Latin America. There were many contributing factors that ultimately led to the uprising of Latin American colonies, but the ultimate reason why Latin America decided to attain independence was because they were tried of being oppressed by Europe and the Spanish Crown. In the following paragraphs, I will explain the causes of the movements of independence and prove that this was the uprising of an oppressed nation. One of the many causes of Latin American independence was of the resentment of low...

Anything Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Anything - Essay Example The city lords wanted to attract merchants more because they paid taxes to them, which was collected by the sheriff. The system was prone to corruption because of illiteracy, so people demanded for charters that saved them from fraudulent sheriffs and provided them with law courts. There also was no proper sewage system in medieval cities because people would throw their bathroom waste and garbage right onto the streets which gave rise to many diseases. This increased rats in medieval cities which gave rise to bubonic plague causing the Black Death which lasted one year (1348-49). Water was also polluted because it was contaminated with toilet waste both by the city residents and the villagers. People were ignorant of hygiene and cleanliness. Hence, life expectancy was also very short as diseases were common. Cities would be on curfew but there was no police force to arrest the law breakers. Raids were common. Houses would catch fire every now and then since they were made of wood. Land was costly. These were some immediate crises that informed the creation of medieval

Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intellectual Property - Essay Example Almost all the organizations whether large of small, national or multinational, and industrial or artistic develop logos, draw designs and introduce some brands that serve as the identity mark of the company. Intellectual property is the identity mark of an individual, a company, an organization or an industry, over which the creator contains complete and unconditional rights. The statute of law provides protection to such property in favour of the originator, and claim over this type of property without referencing to the devisor is against the statute of law and liable to be punishment. Copyright Act, Trademark Ordinance and Patents Ordinance provide protection to intellectual property rights. There are two main types of intellectual property i.e. i) Copyright and ii) Industrial property. Copyright consists of sections of art and literature including prose work, poems, lyrics, drama, novel, narrative, thesis, presentation, articles, essays, broachers, film, paintings, sculptures, drawings, photographs, musical tones and songs, printing material, publications, architectural and audio-visual works. â€Å"Copyright is given†, Rafique states, â€Å"to the first producer of a book irrespective of the fact whether that book is wise or foolish, accurate or inaccurate, or of literary merits or no merit whatever†. (Copyrights Ordinance 1962, 2005: p 4). Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings, and those of broadcasters in their radio and television programs. In the same way, Industrial and manufacturing intellectual property consists of logo, slogan, trademark, patents, brand name, company design, software, chemical formula, machine, apparatus and inventions. It is fact beyond doubt that the person who makes efforts in respect of creating an innovative idea or making invention deserves

The Difference Between Licensing and Credentialing Assignment

The Difference Between Licensing and Credentialing - Assignment Example In addition, one must pay a fee of $100 for certification. In addition nurses are required to renew their national nursing certification after every two years upon which one must pay $75 as renewal fee. Additionally, nurses are required to have successfully completed thirty hours contact for ongoing education (Pennsylvania Department of State, 2013). On the contrary, the requirements for credentialing as an advance practice nurse may include; a license of a registered nurse as well as relevant education as specialist nurse. In addition, one must have met all the Pennsylvania regulatory requirements for an advanced clinical nurse (Zaccagnini & White, 2011). The multi-state licensure has the impact to both mobility of nurses and nursing practice among different states. In addition, multi-state licensure helps to improve delivery of health care. For example, it helps in carrying out telenursing (Sharpe, 2001). In addition, the legal process required to be licensed as well as be credentialed as advanced practice nurse may include: a person must have been licensed as a nurse. Secondly, one might be issued with a document that is separate from license by the Pennsylvania Board of Nursing. This document defines the scope of practice for an advanced nurse. Thirdly, a confirmation is obtained to from the Pennsylvania Board of Nursing to verify whether one has been authorized to practice as advanced nurse. In addition, one must collaborate with the entire nursing requirement as may define by the law (DeNisco, & Barker, 2013). Pennsylvania Department of State (2013).Nursing License Map: Nursing Licensure made Simple. Retrieved ; on 29th June

KIPP National Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

KIPP National - Case Study Example The founders have the drive and passion to give children of lower income families the skills to make it through college. This passion and skill has shown success. From the very beginning the founders worked for months trying to establish the right to operate as a school. This took months of waiting from the district to approve the original proposal made by the founders. Once approval was accepted the founders were able to begin recruiting students and convincing parents that their new school would greatly help their child academically. Over the next months the founders were able to recruit enough students to get the KIPP School started. The founders had many promises to live up to and this helped guide the success as they did not want to let parents and their children down. Having enrollment grow each school year proved that what the founders created a school that was turning out to be successful. Students were excelling at a terrific rate and the option for expansion was taken witho ut hesitation. Scores were improving and the students showed the willingness to want to succeed. The growth to New York showed that KIPP Schools were not holding back and were focused on helping kids who otherwise would not have a chance in a normal school environment. There are many elements in the KIPP operational model that set KIPP apart from other schools. ... Structure and not allowing any slack in commitment makes for KIPP’s successful operational model and sets them apart from the rest. 2) Should the KIPP schools be replicated? Can they be? What are the major challenges KIPP will face as it expands? The KIPP schools are mainly successful because of the hard work and determination put forth by the two original founders. The two original founders make sure that teachers, parents and students are focusing and functioning how they originally promised. Replicating this type of structure and discipline would be hard to replicate. The schools would be hard to replicate because the two founders would need to make sure they have teachers that are willing to give their all like the founders have. Many examples throughout the case refer to why it was important for the founders to lead the schools in the direction they are going in. Expansion can be done but it is likely that expansion will take away from the success that the two original sc hools already have. Expanding is one thing and can be achieved by funding and hard work. Expanding and being successful is another issue. One can expand but what is the point if the expansion is not going to be successful. By reviewing the case it is obvious that success was determined on the founder’s hard work. Two people alone cannot be at several locations at once to make sure teachers are acting how they need to be and students are living up to their agreements. If the founders are out taking on several new ventures the two original schools will lose leadership by the founders and can slowly become unsuccessful unless proper leadership is put in place. It is obvious that

Those Changes that the Underwent through Southern American Literature Research Paper

Those Changes that the Underwent through Southern American Literature - Research Paper Example These river valleys was were civilisation was at peak in this region as it was the location of most of the towns, however, between these valleys and in the least accessible mountainous regions little human activity took place. However, westward expansion through the southern Appalachian turned towards the Ohio valley and North West territory changed this course and people started settling in the mountainous regions. Relationships between families and communities in this region were hostile and although they sometimes united to maintain churches and schools, the memberships of these institutions kept on changing. Slavery in this region was the norm where slaves were got from Africa to work for their American masters in their land or in their homes. In the novel ‘Gone with the wind’, Margaret Mitchell has depicted slavery in the southern America region by dividing the characters in two groups along class lines: the white planter class such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the b lack servant class such as Mammy, Prissy, pork and uncle Peter who acted as house servants. Mitchell goes further to show the subdivisions that were there in different classes such as among the slaves, there were those who worked in the house and stayed with their master; these were considered to belong to the highest caste. In addition, there were those who worked in the farms and did manual work; these were considered to be lower in the caste system of the slaves (Mitchell 24) Southern Belle, which is the traditional reference for a young woman in southern America who belonged to the rich upper class, has been brought up in the character of Scarlett O’Hara. Scarlett O’Hara is depicted as an attractive person although not good-looking, which is a perfect description of a southern belle. However, for Scarlett, the perfect description of a southern belle is her mother Ellen whose back is never seen to rest against the back of any seat on which she sit and whose broken h eart is usually mistaken for an innocent composure. The charming nature of a southern belle can be seen in the way that Scarlett is able to manoeuvre the wars and financial misfortunes that happen to her and gain wealth of her own. In addition, despite several of her husbands dying, she was determined to get married and raise a family of her own, a typical characteristic of a southern belle. The battles and confrontations that the southern part of America participated in shaped the history of the area; these battles saw the young men recruited to the army despite the conflicting interests where young girls wished them to remain behind for marriage purposes. Some of the battles that the southern communities were involved in include the seven days battle at Richmond Virginia that lasted between 25th June and 1st July in 1962 and the confederate army won; the battle of Fredericksburg at Fredericksburg, Virginia from December 11th to 15th, the confederate army won. Other battles were th e Streight’s Raid in northern Alabama from April 19 – May 3, 1863 where union colonel was captured by confederate army general, Battle of Chancellorsville in Spotsylvania County in Virginia from April 30 to May 6 where the confederate a

KIPP National Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

KIPP National - Case Study Example The founders have the drive and passion to give children of lower income families the skills to make it through college. This passion and skill has shown success. From the very beginning the founders worked for months trying to establish the right to operate as a school. This took months of waiting from the district to approve the original proposal made by the founders. Once approval was accepted the founders were able to begin recruiting students and convincing parents that their new school would greatly help their child academically. Over the next months the founders were able to recruit enough students to get the KIPP School started. The founders had many promises to live up to and this helped guide the success as they did not want to let parents and their children down. Having enrollment grow each school year proved that what the founders created a school that was turning out to be successful. Students were excelling at a terrific rate and the option for expansion was taken witho ut hesitation. Scores were improving and the students showed the willingness to want to succeed. The growth to New York showed that KIPP Schools were not holding back and were focused on helping kids who otherwise would not have a chance in a normal school environment. There are many elements in the KIPP operational model that set KIPP apart from other schools. ... Structure and not allowing any slack in commitment makes for KIPP’s successful operational model and sets them apart from the rest. 2) Should the KIPP schools be replicated? Can they be? What are the major challenges KIPP will face as it expands? The KIPP schools are mainly successful because of the hard work and determination put forth by the two original founders. The two original founders make sure that teachers, parents and students are focusing and functioning how they originally promised. Replicating this type of structure and discipline would be hard to replicate. The schools would be hard to replicate because the two founders would need to make sure they have teachers that are willing to give their all like the founders have. Many examples throughout the case refer to why it was important for the founders to lead the schools in the direction they are going in. Expansion can be done but it is likely that expansion will take away from the success that the two original sc hools already have. Expanding is one thing and can be achieved by funding and hard work. Expanding and being successful is another issue. One can expand but what is the point if the expansion is not going to be successful. By reviewing the case it is obvious that success was determined on the founder’s hard work. Two people alone cannot be at several locations at once to make sure teachers are acting how they need to be and students are living up to their agreements. If the founders are out taking on several new ventures the two original schools will lose leadership by the founders and can slowly become unsuccessful unless proper leadership is put in place. It is obvious that

Difference in the Health Care Systems of the USA and Germany Research Paper

Difference in the Health Care Systems of the USA and Germany - Research Paper Example The combined health care system is the basis of the US healthcare system where both the private and public sectors play a significant role to present a convenient and superlative health care system. In most of the cases, there can be found an apparent authority of public element over the private element. A report says that in 2010, more than 64% of the US population got the private health insurance which means nearly 195.9 million people were covered by this sector. In the year 2011, the percentage of privately insured people was 63.9%. However, in the USA, there are two health care programmes, Medicare and Medicaid, which are supervised by the US federal Department of Health and Human Services. People over 65 years and above get Medicare service whereas Medicaid is a system that offers financial help to the poor. These systems cover nearly 87 million Americans. On the other hand, the act, Health Care Reform Provisions, which is known as Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (H. R. 3590)   was passed by the House of Representatives and signed by the U.S. President Barack Obama. The bill was passed on Sunday, March 21 and signed by the President on Tuesday, March 23. The bill, which is regarded as a comprehensive health care reform bill, was formally passed by the Senate on December 24, 2009.  Medicare benefits are provided through traditional fee-for-service handled by the federal government. In 2004, the US government spent $297 billion provided to support 42   million  Medicare beneficiaries. This system covers the people of 65 years of age and above. It includes payroll taxes, general revenue,   premium contributions and taxation of social safety benefits. Payroll taxes have been paid by most of the beneficiaries of standard Medicare during their working period to ensure their participation in Medicare  hospitalization programme.  

Cold environments may be developed Essay Example for Free

Cold environments may be developed Essay Cold environments may be developed in a sustainable manner. To what extent do you agree with this statement? I disagree with this statement more than I agree with it. Cold environments in the world that were previously wilderness areas have undergone development, and nearly all of them have proved to be unsustainable. In the alpine areas, the mountains are a major magnet because of the scenery and the wide variety of winter sports that can take place there. The Alps have been developed as a tourist area. Although tourism benefits the area economically, it is socially and environmentally unsustainable. Tradition and culture has been eroded away because many young people now go down the mountains into urban areas in search of jobs. Even though the tourist industry has encouraged many young farmers to diversify out of rural and primary activities, many people still leave. Aside from that, the tourist industry brings with it unwanted pollution and litter and also causes footpath erosion. The tourist industry is also a potential hazard to the mountains and villages because the winter sports activities taking place there may cause avalanches. In the tundra or arctic regions, development has not been sustainable either, also both environmentally and socially. Gold, and particularly oil exploration and exploitation have scarred the fragile landscape. In 1968, the Trans-Alaskan pipeline was built from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. Not only were there leakage problems of the oil pipeline associated with earthquakes and permafrost, but it also interfered with the migration of caribou on land and salmon in the rivers. Aside from that, in the 1989, there was the problem of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which polluted the ocean and killed hundreds of birds and marine wildlife. Oil exploration and the invasion of the Europeans into Inuit territory were also socially unsustainable. The traditional way of life was lost as many Inuits were forced to live the white way and many Inuit children were taken from their parents and educated in missionary schools. Their traditional ways of hunting were also lost due to severe regulations on gun control and the introduction of currency into their simple economy. The latter was also the cause of excessive and unsustainable sealing and hunting in the tundra and arctic lands. Although the areas around the Southern Ocean have not been developed, vast quantities of natural fish, seal and whale resources have been taken out. On South Orkney Island, seals were completely depleted by 1800. Whaling began in the 1840s but was unsustainable as well, and ended in 1965 because stocks were exhausted. Fish stocks such as cod and krill have also become severely depleted in recent years. Although institutes such as the International Whaling Convention, the Marine Resources Institute and the CCAMLR were set up, illegal fishing and whaling have led to the depletion of natural resources. In Grytviken and Stromness, abandoned buildings have become an eyesore because they were not cleared away. Attempts at developing Antarctica have been made, mainly in the form of tourism. This is the only cold environment development that can be said to be sustainable. Strict IAATO guidelines on tourist behaviour, controlled numbers of tourists and the harsh climate of Antarctica have made the area difficult to develop. Scientific and research stations, although few, have contributed to waste generated in the area, along with footpath erosion. Most of the waste is shipped to the UK for processing, but what remains cannot decompose easily in the cold climate. Due to efforts of the Antarctic Treaty ratified in 1991 and much pressure from the environmental groups however, the Antarctic region has largely remained untouched. Where development takes place, it cannot be said to be sustainable, because changes have to be made to the area to accommodate people and people contribute to environmental degradation at the very least, even if great care is taken not to disturb or disrupt natural environments. The development of cold environments is mainly unsustainable, although tourism in Antarctica seems to be otherwise. Who knows, however, whether it will remain sustainable in the future because of increased tourism, or because of better technology to fuel mass tourism.

Positivist and Interpretivist Research

Positivist and Interpretivist Research Qualitative research can be defined as, A multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals lives (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Qualitative research emphasizes qualities of entities the processes and meanings that occur naturally (Denzin Lincoln, 2000). Qualitative research methods have for many years made a significant contribution to management research. In this essay, I critically evaluate Gepharts paper on qualitative research, where he writes pertaining to traditional research methods such as positivism and post positivism, interpretive research and critical postmodernism. In the second part of the essay, I evaluate David Silvermans On Finding and Manufacturing Qualitative Data from the book A Very Short, Fairly Interesting and Reasonably Cheap Book about Qualitative Research where his methodology merges with the two methods highlighted in Gepharts paper. Gephart in his paper brings to light three main research traditions used in management research. They are positivism and postpositivism, interpretive research and critical post modernism, which have evolved from the behaviourist and cognitive perspectives of qualitative research. In this part of the essay I shall give an overview about the three research traditions and the distinctions between them. Positivist and post positivist research traditions arise from the behaviourist perspective of qualitative research which is based on the knowledge of consistent relationships. The term positivism was first introduced by Auguste Comte, Our doctrine is one which renders hypocrisy and oppression alike impossible. And it now stands forward as the result of all the efforts of the past, for the regeneration of order, which, whether considered individually or socially, is so deeply compromised by the anarchy of the present time. It establishes a fundamental principle by which true philosophy and sound polity are brought into correlation; a principle which can be felt as well as proved, and which is at once the keystone of a system and a basis of government. (Auguste Comte, 1798-1857). A major tenet of logical positivism is its thesis of the unity of science (Hempel, 1969 Kolakowski, 1968). In its broadest sense, positivism is a position that holds the goal of knowledge. In a positivist view of the world, science is seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough to predict and control it. In other words, Positivism assumes an a priori (truth) which is discoverable through methodical, rigorous, careful observation that can be proven through testable and repeatable methodologies. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way people think in their everyday life are not distinctly different. It can be defined as, non-foundational approach to human knowledge that rejects the view that knowledge is erected on absolutely secure foundation for there are not such things; Post-positivists accept fallibilism (the philosophical doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible) as an unavoidable fact of life (Phillips Burbules, 2000). It is characterized by a more nuanced belief in an ontologically realist out there reality that can only be known within some level of probability (Groat Wang, 2002). Additionally, Post-positivists concede that the experimental methodologies employed in the natural sciences are often inappropriate for research involving people (Groat Wang, 2002). Within Post-positivist methodologies, the researcher is autonomous from the subject of inquiry, objectivity is important, and the inquirer manipu lates and observes in a dispassionate, objective manner. This perspective assumes modified experimental, manipulative methodologies that can include both qualitative and quantitative practices (Denzin Lincoln, 2003). Positivism and post-positivism are almost similar, the only difference is, Post-positivism takes into account the criticisms against and weakness of the rigidity of positivism, and now informs much contemporary social science research, including reality-oriented qualitative inquiry (Patton, 1990). Interpretive research tradition arises from the cognitive perspective of qualitative research which is based on shared understanding and awareness of multiple social and organisational realities. The foundation assumption for interpretive research is that knowledge is gained or at least filtered, through social constructions such as language, consciousness, and shared meanings (Klein Myers, 1999). In addition to the emphasis on the socially constructed nature of reality, interpretive research acknowledges the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is being explored, and the situational constraints shaping this process. Interpretive research traditions take the position that humans are social animals that live in societies and as such investigate and interpret lived experience and their inter subjective realities (Bruce H. Rowlands, 2005). Interpretive researchers thus attempt to understand phenomena through accessing the meanings participants assign to them (Orlikowsk i Baroudi, 1991). Unlike atoms, molecules and electrons, people create and attach their own meanings to the world around them and to the behaviour that they manifest in that world (Schutz, 1973). Interpretive studies assume that people create and associate their own subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact with the world around them. Positivism and Interpretive research can be distinguished as objective versus subjective (Burrell Morgan, 1979), nomothetic versus idiographic (Luthans Davis, 1982), quantitative versus qualitative (Van Maanen, 1979), outsider versus insider (Evered Louis, 1981), and etic versus emic (Morey Luthans, 1984). Critical postmodernism transcends mere description or reconstructs reality and derives meaning from situations through its critical approach. Critical postmodern theory is about the play of differences of micro political movements and impulses of ecology, feminism, multiculturalism, and spirituality without any unifying demand for theoretical integration or methodological consistency (Boje, Fitzgibbons Steingard, 1996). Critical postmodern is definable as the nexus of critical theory, post colonialism, critical pedagogy and postmodern theory (Boje, 2001). Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian journey into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). Critical postmodern spatial theory privileges the lived spatialities of left-margined communities as sites of socio-spatial critique. A postmodern identity politics enacts critical postmodern spatial theory by nurturing the development of, and solidarity between, counter publics, which are subaltern community spaces where private spatialities of alienation are brought to public discourse (Allen, 1999).This tradition is focused on how meanings and reality are shaped over time and seeks to uncover and understand the historical evolution of these meanings, practices, contradictions and expose hidden inequalities in societies. The five distinguishing characteristics of the three research traditions (i) positivism and post positivism (ii) interpretive research and (iii) critical postmodernism, are as follows. First is in terms of the underlying assumptions about reality. Positivism and postpositivism adheres to realism and rely on the assumption of an objective world external to the mind that is mirrored by scientific data and theories; interpretive approach proceeds through the advocacy of relativism with investigation proceeding with data derived from interlinking contextual realities so that data holds both objective and subjective characters; while critical postmodernism adheres to historical realism or the assumption that material or symbolic reality comprised by multidimensional values that crystallizes over time so that the investigation involves the collection of objective and subjective data. Second is in terms of the goal of the investigation. Positivism and post-positivism proceeds with the goal of discovering truths, interpretive research is in line with the goal of describing and understanding of meanings, and critical postmodernism is guided by the goal to uncover hidden interests and contradictions in order to arrive at criticisms that in turn facilitate change. Third is in terms of the tasks involved in the investigation. Positivism and postpositivism involves the identification, explanation and control of variables directed towards the verification of hypothesis or non-falsified hypotheses, interpretive research applies through producing descriptions of members meaning and definitions of situation in order to have a clear understanding of the manner that reality is constructed, while critical postmodernism involves the task of determining insights from the structures of relationships and historical changes that reveal contradictions. Fourth is in relation to the unit of analysis of the research traditions. Positivism and postpositivism utilises variables as the core unit of analysis, interpretive research focuses on verbal and non verbal actions, while critical postmodernism centres on contradictions, criticism, signs and symbolism as key elements of the research. Variables become the core unit of analyses because of their objective reality. Verbal and non verbal are the units of analyses in interpretive research because of their subjective nature. Conflict, criticism and symbolism are the core unit of analyses of postmodernism because these elements appropriately capture historical realism. Fifth is with regard to the focus of the methods. Positivism and postpositivism involves the discovery of facts and the comparison of these facts with predefined hypothesis or propositions, interpretive research does not predefine dependent or independent variables, does not set out to test hypotheses, but aims to produce an understanding of the social context of the phenomenon and the process whereby the phenomenon influences and is influenced by the social context (Walsham, 1995), while critical postmodernism involves the derivation and understanding of historical evolution of meanings, conflicts and inequities evolving through time as the method of data gathering and analyses. Since positivism and post positivism involve objective reality, the methods that apply in these research are those useful in gathering facts while methods able to derive meaning appropriately applies to interpretive research and critical postmodernism because these should be able to capture subjective realities in order to derive meaning. Over the last generation there has been a shift in qualitative methods, from a scientist-oriented research, toward a more dynamic representational strategy .Beginning in the late 19th century, Antipositivism was perhaps the first movement to challenge the rigid nature of dominant Positivism. Early Antipositivists like Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936) and later, Max Weber (1864-1920), addresses the Positivist failure to appreciate the fundamental experience of life, and instead favour physical and mental regularities, neglecting the meaningful experience that was really the defining characteristic of human phenomena. Adorno, 1969 (cited in Fuchs. C Sandoval. M., Positivism, Postmodernism, or Critical Theory? : A Case Study of Communications Students Understanding of Criticism) stresses that positivism is only oriented on appearance, whereas critical theory stresses the difference between essence and appearance. Above all, critical theory, poststructuralism, a nd postmodernism are effective as critiques of positivism, interrogating taken-for-granted assumptions about the ways in which people write and read science (Stockman, 1984). Such opinions against positivism lead to a breakthrough from positivism to other research traditions such as interpretive research and critical postmodernism which meet the needs of current researchers. In contradiction to Gephart, Silverman takes a rather interpretive and critical postmodernist stance when writing his piece about manufactured data and found data. Silverman in his paper uses Sacks insights to support the positive things that can be learnt through observations (found data) and the critique view on the use of interview data (manufactured data). He also states that researchers prefer to manufacture data using artificial research settings such as interviews and focus group which use pre-determined research questions. Manufacture of data to answer a specified research problem is precisely the method which quantitative or positivist researchers prefer as explained by Gephart. Alternatively, naturally occurring (found) data arises from being aware that the research situation is not straight forward as eliciting data from interviews. Indeed collecting data through reading, looking, listening, facial expressions, sights, sounds, smells etc are taken into account. It provides a broader perspective of the research problem in hand when compared to manufactured data. Data manufactured through interview talk is approached with very different expectations, this can be explained by, The meaning of an answer is not a straightforward matter of external or internal reference, but also depends on the local and broader discursive system in which the utterance is embedded (Wetherell Potter, 1988). Positivist might interpret interviews in a different manner when compared to interpretive and critical postmodernist. Positivist researchers believe that their research methods and data mirror reality. The positivist researcher might strive to discover objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind, Rather than an interviewee providing prepared/manufactured responses to standard questions designed to be unbiased and neutral, we strive to engage in social construction of a narrative with our participants. In this way we hope to activate the respondents stock of knowledge. (Richie and Rigano, 2001: 744, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research : Anne B Ryan). We regard ourselves as people who conduct research among other people, learning with them, rather than conducting research on them (Wolcott, 1990). Researchers dont ask themselves is this the truth? Rather, we talk about the issues raised during the interviews, the participants reactions, and our interpretations of these interwoven ideas. In this context, it seems right to open up the interpretive discussions [to our respondents], not f or them to confirm or disconfirm them, but to share our thinking and how the ideas might be used. (Richie and Rigano, 2001: 752, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research : Anne B Ryan) Use of manufactured data in qualitative research might make the respondent bias his result, as stated by Crotty (1998) Leading to the epistemological idea that the very act of observation causes a particle to behave differently. Sacks states that, we can treat what people say as an account which positions itself in a particular context. Here the researcher is viewing what people say as an activity awaiting analysis, thus the researchers interpretations play a key role in manufacturing data. Bringing such subjectivity to the fore, backed with quality arguments rather than statistical exactness (Garcia Quek, 1997). Many researchers have criticized the use of manufactured data in qualitative research, which is the positivist view as stated by Gephart and the greater use of naturally occurring data or found data which is the interpretivistic approach. The Dead Social Scientist Test describes manufactured data as, The test is whether the interaction would have taken place in the form that it did had the researcher not been born or if the researcher had got run over on the way to the university that morning'(Potter, 1996). In all research, the choice of data depends on the research problem. Equally, there is no question that all polarities should be investigated particularly where, as here, they involve an appeal to nature (Speer 2002). As Kuhn (1964) stated in his publication The structure of Scientific Knowledge, scientists work withinà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬and are constrained byà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬prevailing paradigms while questioning the alleged objectivity and value-free neutrality of scientific discovery. Interpretive approach is synonymous with ethnography. Doing ethnography is doing an interpretation of the behaviour of human subjects in their local settings. Interpretivistic do not reject the concept of a real world out there but presented the reality which mattered most and they try to understand the respondents response in their own terms. Researchers are the measuring instruments and their understanding will derive from personal experience rather than manipulation of variables, as Hirschman(1986) puts it, personally experienced knowledge serves as scientific data. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers interpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality; hence the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research. Qualitative researchers can access naturally occurring data by finding everyday features in extraordinary settings, this is an interpretive approach. Naturally occurring data can serve as a wonderful basis for theorizing about things that the researcher would never imagine. What ordinarily happens in the world around us means we can start with things that are not currently imaginable, by showing that they happened (Sacks, 1992). Sanday (1979) states that, empathy and identification with the observed people are needed to go about the understanding held by the human subjects. Geertz says that, the trick is not to get yourself into some inner correspondence with your informants. The researcher uses ethnography and manages to interpret an individual behaviour in such a way that it no longer appears to be absurd but appears rational. A successful interpretation is one which makes clear the meaning originally present in a confused, fragmented, cloudy form.. what is initially strange, mystifying, puzzling, contradictory (for the researcher) is no longer so, is accounted for (Taylor, 1979). As stated by Potter (2002), naturally occurring data opens up a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in interview questions. In addition to the interpretive approach through the critical approach, the researcher is able to delve into the determination of differential characteristics, nature of conflict, aspects underlying differences and conflicts, and consequences of differences and conflict which help to address the issues that arise in naturally occurring data. With these types of information derived through the application of critical postmodernist tradition, the investigative approach is able to assess data and explain reasons for these differences and conflicts that in turn catalyses the determination of solutions that leads to eventual change. It can be supported as with the following evidence. Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian journey into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). A critical postmodern project can move us beyond exploitation, racism, sexism, and abuse by reframing and restoring organization theory away from its patriarchal lingo in order to reaffirm social justice, equality, democracy, and the wonders of multiplicity (Boje, 1995: 1004). In a critical postmodern theory, such as Tamara, we can explore the micro-practices of organizational life, as well as contextualize the stories of the marginal Other, within the workings of a post-industrial supply and distribution chain addicted to sweatshops, and the cover-stories produced and distributed by the postmodern storytelling organizations that turn out consumer identities and spectacles for mass consumption (Boje, 1995: 99 8-2). On the plus side, there is always resistance to the forces of global and individual domination and exploitation that stem from the strange hybridity of premodern, modern, and postmodern organizing amalgams. Ultimately, the criticism provides insights into historical events to catalyse change that should be for the betterment of relationships and systems. It can be summarised that good qualitative research is difficult and challenging to undertake. Data manufactured through artificial research settings such as interviews and focus groups restricts the information available to the researcher and it also leads to biased results since the respondent is aware of the researchers need. The positivist researcher might strive to manufacture data by discovering objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind; while interpretivist tries to collect naturally occurring data by understanding the respondents response in their own terms. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers interpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality; hence as Silverman states the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research. Thus naturally occurring data (interpretivist) is more suitable for qualitative research than manufactured data (positivist) because, Naturally occurring data does not flood the research setting with the researchers own categories (embedded in questions, probes, stimuli, vignette and so on) It does not put people on the position of disinterested experts on their own and others practices and thoughts. It does not leave the researcher does not leave the researcher to make a range of more or else problematic inferences from the data collection arena to topic as the topic itself is directly studied. It opens a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in, say, interview questions. It is a rich record of peoples living their lives, pursuing goals, managing institutional tasks and so on. 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